Incident Analysis and Development Plan Essay

In my previous assignments I have attempted to shed some light on the 3 capabilities which I have identified; which were namely the Leadership skills, Knowledge skills and the Interpersonal Management skills. Each of these 3 skills is crucial for a good manager and each holds its own significance in the building of a solid character. For the purpose of this research paper, I will be concentrating on the Leadership and Interpersonal Management skills upon which I have already talked about before. Harnessing these two characteristics would help growth on the individual level and gives an insight into a person’s overall character as viewed from some external source. Incident Analysis Leadership is a value arousing skill (Heifetz, 1994). Recalling any such moment where I have taken the mantle of leadership I would most definitely have to quote of my academic experiences. Groups and teams are a fact of life during one’s academic years and in said groups and teams there are often conflicts arising which without the presence of a team leader, lead to failed deadlines, substandard work quality and overall unpleasantness among team members (Maister, 2002). I can clearly recall the last time I was part of a group and it was in said group that I got a chance to play the role of the team leader. The decision of me being team leader arose due to my past experience in the topic and when the time came to choose the leader from amongst the team-mates I had the expertise in the subject. Even though I was not experienced much in any leadership position, I was able to do a sufficient job as the group leader and it made me appreciate the tough job that it is to lead people towards a single goal so as to make the achievement a shared vision (Purpose of Leadership, 1997). However, one thing I learned was that Leadership is never static as the role of a leader keeps changing in modern times and anybody who has a proficiency in some skill would take on the leader role when work related to his area of specialization arose. Without any leadership there would hardly be any sense of where the team was headed and it would be meaningless progressing further (Kelly, 2007). Interpersonal skills are also very important in recent times as people of every walk of life have to interact with others to get their jobs done. Previously it was the belief that some jobs required very little interaction with other individuals, such as finance related jobs and other desk jobs where the employees would have minimal socializing (Hayes, 2002). But now the field has changed with people interacting with others for the exchange of knowledge, and for socializing purposes. An incident regarding where I had to demonstrate my interpersonal skills arose when while arranging for a charity event for which friends needed help, I had to visit different markets and deal with numerous people over getting sponsors and getting arrangements done. Through the course of this excursion I had to interact with numerous people and demonstrate communication skills which involved interacting with people at all levels, such as common laborers and store owners. This feature of interacting with people at all levels is beneficial in the sense that it helps later to impress employers (Seneca, 2001). Through the course of interacting with people I was able to get some good contacts that would come in fruitful for future use while also overcoming my dread of speaking to strangers and becoming more comfortable talking to people (Hargie & Dickson, 2003). Self Assessment Measuring one’s leadership skills, one must first recognize the types of leaders that exist. There is some argument as to whether there are 6 types or 7 types of leaders but personally I prefer to side with the 7 types argument. Based on 5 criteria leaders are placed into the types of the transformational leader, the enforcer, the deal maker, the administrator, the visionary, the serial entrepreneur and the spin doctor (Taffinder). The five factors upon which leaders are determined are: impose context, have conviction, generate critical mass, challenge and change and they make and take risks. With respect to the definitions provided, I would rank myself as an Enforcer. This is due to the fact that I am risk averse when groups are concerned and tend to stick to tested and tried guidelines. I am highly confident when taking actions and try to motivate team members in a manner that they have the feeling to achieve something (Brill & Barth, 2008). Â  I avoid taking unnecessary risks since the responsibility of leading a team in my opinion does not permit one the opportunity to take risks. If the risk pays off that’s well and good, but if the risk does not, then the leader is responsible for the outcome of events. This responsibility I believe takes away the liberty that a leader should have and should make him more serious towards leading his followers to attaining the goal (Ball, 2003). Judging anyone’s interpersonal skills is not so easy as it involves feedback from external sources. When others tell one how well they are performing, then one can be any statement regarding the success or failure of it. I would say that I am sufficiently endowed with my interpersonal skills. I would come to the conclusion taking into account the success rate when dealing with others. I have often had to conduct affairs with other external groups and so far I would say that I have done a very good job in carrying out interpersonal dealings. Researchers suggested that self analyzing when related to interpersonal skills should be avoided by researchers since the judgement would always be biased and the answer would be uninfluenced in very rare case (Rubin, Palmgreen, Sypher, & Beatty, 2004). This goes back to the point mentioned that since people are unaware as to most of what they do, determining the efficiency of their success in Interpersonal Communication is very hard to do. A concept known as Self Monitoring usually leads to greater success in determining a person’s interpersonal skills. Self Monitoring is a trait exhibited by famous good public speakers, as they were very receptive of their audiences and could adapt their presentation as per the response from the audience. Many politicians such as Bill Clinton for example have been reported to have strong Self Monitoring skills. Viewing myself through outside eyes I have surmised that in the short time that I have become more pro active in interacting with others, I would say that I am quite successful in interacting with people and can easily carry forward a conversation and can entertain and communicate with others effortlessly (Corbin, Corbin, & Lindsey, 2007). Â  If compared to the extent required in the managerial world and professional world, I would have to say that the skills I possess are somewhere between acceptable and need slightly more improvement. Since leadership is a situational issue, with leadership sometimes being given and other times not, only time can tell how well one has performed. Some situations require more insight and expertise whereas others are relatively simple as all you have to do is inspire your team and it successfully finishes the task on its own (Drucker, 1995)I have usually encountered the former as I haven’t yet witnessed any intense leadership role where I’d have to make decisions which would lead to greater consequences. Interpersonal skills are essential for any business activity and comparing it to the market levels I would say that some improvement, or refinement, is needed. Even though I am not hopeless with my interpersonal skills, it is still a far away from being absolutely perfect. I believe I possess enough skills to at least get the basic jobs done. Development Plans To improve upon my interpersonal skills, I have decided to listen to the suggestions stated. Smiling more often when talking to others, being more appreciative of others comments, paying more attention to others, practicing active listening (applying stuff that I have learnt through listening to others), bringing people together, trying to resolve conflicts, communicating early, and in a humorous manner, trying to see other people’s perspectives and avoiding complaining are some measures that I plan to adopt in order to improve my interpersonal skills (All Business). Following these tips I plan to become more popular in crowds and become more receptive to others when interacting with them. These tips would help me in making a more favorable impression in front of others and become a popular and pleasurable person to talk to. And that in turn would make communicating with others more easier for me and more often. Currently what I’m lacking due to inexperience with interacting with others would be resolved if I strictly follow these mentioned tips. To develop my leadership style I must first note where I fall behind other successful leaders, and in this case, I have identified that I am highly risk averse and in return wind up hindering group from reaching its full potential. Taking more risks, but with the consent and full information being provided to the group so that they can give their feedback as well, I will try to move towards becoming a Transformational Leader who not only gets the job done, but inspires the followers to think of the goals as their goals as well and have a combined motivation towards the job as well. Conclusion Leadership and interpersonal skills are very important for today’s managers as it is the manager’s job to get the tasks done while keeping a strong healthy relationship between all levels of the employees (Koellner, 2002). Currently I am more than capable of handling the simple situations which may arise on a day to day basis, but to actually handle situations which may affect a larger scale, I need to work harder to build my skills so as to become a Transformational leader (Argyris, 1976), who is the best type of flexible leader, and to have good links which can only be forged if the interpersonal relations I have with others are good. Without strong interpersonal skills, no one can actually get the full whole hearted support from others. A person should seek external opinions to actually gauge where he is standing since these are inherent qualities and people are not qualified enough to correctly identify their skills. References All Business. (n.d.). Ten Ways to Improve Your Interpersonal Skills. Retrieved April 28, 2009, from All Business: http://www.allbusiness.com/human-resources/careers-career-development/11134-1.html Argyris, C. (1976). Increasing leadership effectiveness. R.E Krieger. Ball, J. (2003). Managing People. Retrieved April 28, 2009, from http://www.accountancy.com.pk/articles.asp?id=54 Brill, F. S., & Barth, R. (. (2008). Leading and Learning. Stenhouse Publishers. Corbin, C., Corbin, C. B., & Lindsey, R. (2007). Fitness for Life. Human Kinetics. Drucker, P. F. (1995). The Practice of Management. Harper Collins. Hargie, O., & Dickson, D. (2003). Skilled interpersonal communication. Routledge. Hayes, J. (2002). Interpersonal skills at work. Routledge.

Dementia

Dementia Dementia  has become an all-important  disease  because the population is aging rapidly and the cost of health care associated with  dementia  is ever increasing. In addition to cognitive function impairment, associated behavioral and psychological symptoms of  dementia  (BPSD) worsen patient's quality of life and increase caregiver's burden.Alzheimer's  disease  is the most common type of  dementia  and both behavioral disturbance and cognitive impairment of  Alzheimer's  disease  are thought to be associated with the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) dysfunction as increasing evidence of dysfunctional glutamatergic neurotransmission had been reported in behavioral changes and cognitive decline in  Alzheimer's  disease. We  reviewthe literature regarding  dementia  (especially  Alzheimer's  disease), BPSD and relevant findings on glutamatergic and NMDA neurotransmission, including the effects of memantine, a NMDA receptor antagonist, and NMDA-enhancing agents, such as D-serine and D-cycloserine.Literatures suggest that behavioral disturbance and cognitive impairment of  Alzheimer's  disease  may be associated with excitatory neurotoxic effects which result in impairment of neuronal plasticity and degenerative processes. Memantine shows benefits in improving cognition, function, agitation/aggression and delusion in  Alzheimer's  disease. On the other hand, some NMDA modulators which enhance NMDA function through the co-agonist binding site can also improve cognitive function and psychotic symptoms.We propose that modulating NMDA neurotransmission is effective in treating behavioral and psychological symptoms of  Alzheimer's  disease. Prospective study using NMDA enhancers in patients with  Alzheimer'sdisease  and associated behavioral disturbance is needed to verify this hypothesis. Mental disorders constitute a huge social and economic burden for health care systems worldwide [1], raising the quest ion of effective and lasting treatments. Physical activity (PA) and exercise (EX) continue to gain the attention of practitioners and researchers with regard to prevention and treatment of different psychopathological abnormalities.In the general population, several epidemiological studies have found significant cross-sectional correlations between mental health and PA levels. In an adult US population, regular PA is associated with a significantly decreased prevalence of current major depression, panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, and specific phobia [2]. A study from Norway confirmed this negative cross-sectional association between depression and leisure-time PA of any intensity (not work-related PA), and pointed out that social factors such as social support, rather than biological markers, play an important role [3].Recently, a Dutch study replicated this finding, reporting lower rates of any affective, anxiety, or substance use disorder in subjects who exercised at le ast 1 h/wk, without finding a linear dose-response relationship [4]. Prospectively, the overall incidence of mental disorders and co-morbid mental disorders, as well as the incidence of anxiety, somatoform, and dysthymic disorder, decreases by PA [5]. Furthermore, a four-year prospective study revealed that PA decreases the incidence rates of depressive and anxiety disorders in older adults [6].Finally, ten Have et al. reported in their epidemiological study that patients engaging in regular PA were more likely to recover from their mental illness at a three-year follow-up In psychiatric patients, different mechanisms of action for PA and EX have been discussed: On a neurochemical and physiological level, a number of acute changes occur during and following bouts of EX, and several long-term adaptations are related to regular EX training.For instance, EX has been found to normalize reduced levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and therefore has neuroprotective or even n eurotrophic effects [7-9]. Animal studies found EX-induced changes in different neurotransmitters such as serotonin and endorphins [10,11], which relate to mood, and positive effects of EX on stress reactivity (e. g. , the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis [12,13]). Finally, anxiolytic effects of EX mediated by atrial natriuretic peptide have been reported [14].Potential psychological mechanisms of action include learning and extinction, changes in body scheme and health attitudes/behaviors, social reinforcement, experience of mastery, shift of external to more internal locus of control, improved coping strategies, or simple distraction Several prospective studies have found that a high level of PA seems to delay the onset of dementia (see [74] for a review). Since improvements in strength and endurance after training were found in cognitively impaired patients as well as healthy controls [75], PA interventions are generally feasible in this population.For Alzheimer's disease (AD) , preliminary evidence suggests that EX interventions may improve communication performance [78], Mini Mental State Examination scores and verbal fluency [79], and disruptive behavior [80]. Four studies [81-84] found that PA slowed down and partially reversed the decline in performance of activities of daily living and progression of the cognitive symptoms related to dementia, in contrast to an older study, which did not find improvements in functional ability [85]. Zschucke , E. and Gaudlitz, K.Exercise and Physical Activity in Mental Disorders: Clinical and Experimental Evidence Zschucke , E. and Gaudlitz, K. (2013) Exercise and Physical Activity in Mental Disorders: Clinical and Experimental Evidence. Journal of Preventative Medicine and Public Health  , 46 (1), p. 12-21. Available at: http://www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/pmc/articles/PMC3567313/ [Accessed: 6th Mar 13]. Leptin, an adipocytokine produced in the peripheral system as well as in the brain, is implicated in obesity, food intake, glucose homeostasis, and energy expenditure.Leptin expression levels and signaling pathways may also be linked to the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer’s disease. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that higher circulating leptin levels are associated with lower risk of dementia including Alzheimer’s disease, and lower circulating levels of leptin have been reported in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Leptin receptors are highly expressed in the hippocampus, a brain area involved in learning and memory and severely affected during the course of Alzheimer’s disease.In laboratory studies, several in vivo and in vitro studies have shown that leptin supplementation decreases amyloid-? (A? ) production and tau phosphorylation, two major biochemical events that play a key role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. In this review, we will review the structure of leptin, the type of receptors of leptin in the brain, the various biological functions attributed to this adipocytokine, the signaling pathways that govern leptin actions, and the potential role of leptin in the pathophysiology of Alzheimer’s disease.Leptin exerts its functions by binding to the leptin receptor (ObR). This binding can involve several signaling pathways including JAK/STAT pathway, ERK pathway and the PI3K/Akt/mTOR Pathway. Modulation of these pathways leads to the regulation of a multitude of functions that define the intricate involvement of leptin in various physiological tasks. In this review, we will specifically relate the potential involvement of leptin signaling in Alzheimer’s disease based on work published by several laboratories including ours.All this work points to leptin as a possible target for developing supplementation therapies for reducing the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. Leptin is a 146 amino acid protein with a molecular weight of 16 kDa encoded by the  ob   gene and primarily, but not exclusively, expressed by the white adipose tissue (WAT) and is implicated in obesity, food intake, and energy homeostasis. Leptin protein was discovered by the molecular geneticist Jeffrey Friedman in 1994 at Rockefeller University and the work was published in a landmark  Nature  paper in December 1994 [1].The human  ob  gene has been mapped to chromosome 7q31. 3 [2] and encodes a 4. 5 kb mRNA transcript that is translated into a 167 amino acid peptide and subsequently processed in the ER into the 146 amino acid mature leptin protein [1]. Antecedent to the discovery of the leptin protein and positional cloning of the  ob  gene in 1994, the  ob/ob  mouse characterized by hyperphagia and a marked obese phenotype was serendipitously discovered by animal caretakers in 1950 at Jackson Laboratories [3].It was the general consensus that the  ob/ob  mouse possessed a mutation in the  obgene, but this was not elucidated and unequivocall y established until the discovery of the leptin protein and mapping of the  ob  gene by Friedman and colleagues in 1994 who showed that the mutation resulted in the loss of leptin production. In 1966, the  db/db  mouse was discovered, again at Jackson Laboratories, which not only exhibited a similar hyperphagic, obese phenotype, but also hyperglycemia [4].Tartaglia and colleagues in 1995 showed that the  db/db  mouse phenotype can be attributed to the mutation in the  db  gene that codes for the long-form of the leptin receptor obRb [5]. However, it was the seminal work of Doug Coleman and colleagues who demonstrated by a series of parabiosis experiments using  ob/ob  mice and  db/db  mice pairs and established that the  ob/ob  mice lacked a circulating factor whereas the  db/db  mice produced the circulating factor but were not able to respond to it [6,7].The validity of these breakthroughs was affirmed by subsequent discovery of the leptin protein a nd cloning of the  ob  gene [1] as well as the cloning of the  db  gene which coded for the long-form leptin receptor obRb [5]. Further corroboration emanated from the finding that the  db  mice produced the truncated form of obRb that was incapable of transducing leptin-mediated intracellular signal transduction [8-12] and administration of exogenous leptin obviated the obese, hyperphagic, hypothermic, and hypometabolic phenotype in  ob/ob  mice [13-15]. Go to: ————————————————-Leptin – structure, expression, and secretion The crystal structure of leptin has revealed the secondary and tertiary structure of the leptin molecule. The three dimensional crystal structure of leptin depicts the presence of four antiparallel ? -helices (A, B, C, and D) [16]. Two long crossover loops connect the A-B and C-D ? -helices, while a short loop connects the B-C ? - helices [16]. The entire leptin molecule is oblong shaped with the dimensions of 20x25x45 A0[16]. The entire molecule comprising of the bundle of four ? -helical loops adopts a bilayered stratified structure with ? helices A-D in one layer contiguous with ? -helices B-C in the other layer [16]. The conformation adopted by the leptin molecule results in the surface emergence of a few key hydrophobic residues like Phe41, Phe92, Trp100, Trp138, and Leu142  which not only play an indispensable role in the regulation of solubility and aggregation kinetics of the leptin protein, but are also critically requisite for as well as modulate the binding of leptin to the leptin receptor and determine the binding kinetics of the leptin-leptin receptor interaction [16].The three dimensional four-helical bundle crystal structure of leptin exhibits an overt, conspicuous congruence with other cytokines such as growth hormone (GH) [17], leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) [18], and G-CSF (G-colony stim ulating factor) [19], despite lack of primary sequence homology with these proteins or other proteins [1]. Leptin is expressed primarily by the white adipose tissue [1,20] and circulating leptin levels are proportional to the white adipose tissue mass [21,22]. In humans, leptin expression in the subcutaneous adipose tissue is significantly more in magnitude than omental adipose tissue [23-26].Other studies have demonstrated no difference in leptin expression between the subcutaneous and omental adipose tissue [27]. Leptin expression in humans also exhibits sexual dimorphism with circulating leptin levels about 3-fold greater in females than males [25,28,29]. It is now certain that other tissues also produce leptin, including stomach [30,31], mammary gland [32], human placenta [33], ovaries [34], heart [35], skeletal muscle [36], pituitary gland [37], and the brain [37-39]. In the brain leptin mRNA expression and immunoreactivity has been seen in the hypothalamus, cortex, dentate gyr us and the hippocampus of the rat [38,39].Leptin immunoreactivity has also been reported in the mouse and hamster brain [40]. Leptin expression and circulating leptin levels are primarily contingent on the white adipose tissue mass [21,22] and are significantly elevated in obesity [21,22,41,42]. Consistent with this observation, weight loss is associated with a decrease in leptin levels in the plasma [22]. Leptin levels in the plasma also fluctuate in an ultradian manner and exhibit diurnal rhythm [43,44]. Leptin secretion occurs in a pulsatile rhythm with ~30 pulses of leptin secretion in a 24-hour cycle [43,45].Acute caloric restriction reduces leptin levels by ~30% within 24 hours [46-48] whereas caloric excess elevates leptin levels in the plasma by ~35% within 5-8 hours [47]. Therefore, nutritional intake regulates leptin expression in an acute as well as chronic fashion. The physiological and hormonal parameters that increase leptin expression include obesity [21,22,41], overf eeding or excess caloric intake [49,50], insulin [51-55], glucocorticoids [51,52,56,57], glucose [58], tumor necrosis factor ? (TNF? ) [54,59], estradiol [60-62], and IL1 [63,64] among others.The physiological and hormonal factors that decrease leptin expression include androgens [61,65], acute caloric restriction [49,50], growth hormone [66-69], somatostatin [68,70], exposure to cold temperatures [50,71,72], ? 3  adrenergic agonists [70,73-76], long-term exercise [77,78], cAMP (51, 57), PPAR? agonists such as thizolidinediones Pioglitazone, Troglitazone, and Rosiglitazone [79], and free fatty acids [80] among others. Go to: ————————————————- Leptin receptors Leptin receptors (obR) are encoded by the  db  gene [5].The obR are transmembrane spanning proteins that transduce and mediate leptin signaling. The obR exhibit structural and functional homology to the class I cytokine receptors [81,82]. The obR along with other class I cytokine receptors are typified by the characteristic presence of four cysteine residues and a â€Å"WSXWS† motif [81,83] which are a part of multiple fibronectin Type III subdomains in their extracellular domains [84]. The obR transcript undergoes alternate splicing to generate six different receptor isoforms (obRa – ob-Rf) [11].The six isoforms of obR are distinguished by and exhibit very little homology in their intracellular domain [85]. However, all the six isoforms have the same extracellular domain of over 800 amino acids and a transmembrane domain that spans 34 amino acid residues [85]. The six isoforms of obR are pigeonholed into three different groups, namely – short form, long form, and secreted obR [85]. The short-form of obR subsuming obRa (894 amino acids), obRc (892 amino acids), obRd (901 amino acids), and obRf (896 amino acids) possess a short 30-40 amino acid residue intracellular dom ain [85]. bRb (1162 amino acids) is the only functionally active leptin receptor isoform capable of transducing leptin signaling as it contains an intracellular domain that spans ~280 amino acid residues [5]. The obRe isoform (805 amino acids) lacks the intracellular domain and is therefore classified as a secreted soluble receptor and functions as a buffering system involved in the transport of leptin and bioavailibility of free circulating leptin [86,87].The short isoforms obRa, obRc, obRd, and obRf are abundantly expressed in the choroid plexus and endothelial cells of the brain microvasculature that form the BBB and may therefore regulate the flux of leptin across the BBB [88,89]. obRb is pervasively expressed in the human and rodent brain with the highest density in the ventromedial, arcuate, and dorsomedial hypothalamic nuclei [90-93]. obRb is termed the long-form leptin receptor and is solely responsible for propagating signal transduction mechanisms initiated by leptin [5,94 ].The short forms of the leptin receptor ob-Ra, ob-Rc, obRd, and obRf are devoid of intracellular signaling motifs that are obligatory for signal transduction [5]. However the short form receptors obRa and obRc are highly expressed in the choroid plexus and it is speculated that they mediate the uptake of leptin across the BBB (88, 89). obRb expression has been reported in several regions of the rodent and human brain including the hypothalamus [90,92,93], hippocampus, brain stem (nucleus of the solitary tract and the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus), amygdala and the substantia nigra [92,93,95,96].In the hippocampus leptin receptor immunoreactivity is observed in the CA1/ CA3 region and the dentate gyrus [95,97]. Furthermore, axonal and somato-dendritic regions and hippocampal synapses exhibit leptin receptor immunolabeling in primary hippocampal cultures [97]. Go to: ——————————————à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- Biological and physiological functions Leptin was discovered as the endogenous hormone that precludes obesity and regulates energy homeostasis [1].Antecedent to the discovery of leptin in 1994, about two decades ago, Doug Coleman had posited the role of a circulating hormone that thwarted obesity via its action in the brain to regulate food intake and energy homeostasis and in the peripheral tissues to regulate energy catabolism, thermogenesis as well as basal metabolism [7]. This was corroborated in the mid 1990s after the discovery of leptin by studies that demonstrated in rodents that administration of exogenous leptin decreased food intake and augmented energy expenditure [13-15,98,99].Leptin administration augments energy expenditure by actuating the ? -oxidation of fatty acids in the mitochondria and also inducing the expression of enzymes involved in ? -oxidation [100]. However, the notion that high levels of leptin augment weight loss and circumvent obesity must be tempered with the fact that high endogenous leptin levels have been effete in thwarting obesity in humans and other mammals [21,22,41]. This can be ascribed to a phenomenon termed â€Å"leptin resistance† [101-103]. Leptin plays a pivotal role in the induction of puberty and fertility.Leptin reinstates puberty, restores fertility in  ob/ob  mice, escalates puberty and fosters reproductive behavior in wildtype rodents [104-107]. Leptin directly regulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis by inducing gonadotropin release and modulating estradiol production in the ovarian follicles [108,109]. Leptin also regulates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis by attenuating corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) production and release [110,111] as well as directly inhibiting ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)-induced glucocorticoid release from the adrenal cortex [111-113].Leptin is also integrally involved in the physiological homeostasis of the circulat ory system. Emerging evidence implicates leptin in hematopoeisis as leptin is involved in proliferation and differentiation hematopoietic precursors [114-116]. Higher plasma levels of leptin (~100ng/mL), suchas those observed in obese individuals, foster and promote platelet aggregation [117]. Leptin is also one of the most potent inducers of vascular epithelial cell growth and angiogenesis and the short forms and the long-form of the leptin receptor is abundantly expressed in the vasculature [117-119].Go to: ————————————————- Leptin function in the brain Hypothalamus Leptin signaling in the hypothalamus regulates food intake and energy homeostasis in mammals. The arcuate nucleus (ARC), dorsomedial nucleus (DMH), and the ventromedial nucleus (VMH) of the hypothalamus express the obRb in the greatest density. In the ARC, the obRb is abundantly expressed in two disparate neu ronal cell types, ones that express neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) and the others that express pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) [92,120-122].Leptin induced activation of the obRb in the POMC neurons results in depolarization and increased biosynthesis of ? -melanocyte-stimulating hormone (? -MSH) which signals downstream by actuating the melanocortin system comprising of melanocortin-3-receptors (MC3R) and melanocortin-4-receptors (MC4R) expressed by the second order neurons downstream to evoke an anorexiogenic (decreased appetite) response [122-127]. Activation of the melanocortin pathway not only suppresses appetite but also increases energy expenditure by increasing sympathetic tone resulting in ? oxidation of fatty acids in skeletal and adipose tissue. While leptin activates the POMC-expressing neurons, the actuation of obRb by leptin in the NPY/AgRP neurons results in the decreased genesis of NPY and AgRP peptides which are orexiogenic (increase appetite) in nature [122,128]. Therefore, in conspectus, leptin signaling in the hypothalamus results in the decreased expression of orexiogenic peptides (NPY, AgRP) and increased expression of anorexiogenic peptides (? -MSH) as well as increased energy expenditure in the adipose tissue and skeletal muscle tissue.Hippocampus Leptin receptors are abundantly expressed in the CA1 and CA3 regions of the hippocampus as well as the dentate gyrus [95,97]. Leptin regulates the excitability and firing of hippocampal neurons via the modulation of BK potassium channels [97]. Leptin also improves memory processing and retention when administered directly into the CA1 region in mice [129] and rodents that are deficient in the leptin receptor (db/db  mice and  fa/fa  rats) exhibit profound deficits in spatial learning and memory [129-131].Treatment of acute hippocampal slices with leptin results in the conversion of short-term potentiation (STP) to long term potentiation (LTP) by enhancing Ca2+  influ x through NMDA receptors [132]. Leptin increases synaptogenesis and aids in memory formation in the hippocampus and is purported to be a cognitive enhancer [133]. Leptin also increases neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of adult mice [134]. Leptin also plays a critical role in hippocampal neuronal survival by activating the PI3K-Akt and JAK2/STAT3 signal transduction pathways [135].Leptin upregulates the expression of potent endogenous antioxidant enzyme Mn-SOD (manganese superoxide dismutase) and the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL (B-cell lymphoma xL) in a STAT3-dependent manner in the hippocampus [135]. Leptin stabilizes mitochondrial membrane potential and attenuates the glutamate-induced mitigation in mitochondrial membrane potential and also extenuates the free iron-induced augmentation in mitochondrial ROS [135]. Go to: ————————————————- Leptin signalingLeptin binding to its long-form receptor obRb actuates four major signal transduction pathways that are coupled to obRb – JAK/STAT pathway, ERK pathway, PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, as well as the AMPK/SIRT1 signal transduction pathways. JAK/STAT pathway Leptin signaling via the obRb is integrally coupled to the JAK2/STAT3, JAK2/STAT5 and JAK2/STAT6 pathways [10]. The long-form of the leptin receptor obRb is constitutively coupled to Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) via the evolutionary conserved domains proximal to the membrane [136].The binding of leptin to obRb evokes a conformational change in the receptor that actuates JAK2 by phosphorylation at Tyr1007/1008  residues [136]. Activated phosphorylated JAK2 subsequently phosphorylates evolutionary conserved tyrosine residues of obRb [94] at Tyr985, Tyr1077  and Tyr1138  [137,138]. The obRb phosphorylated at Tyr1077  and Tyr1138  serves as a docking site and recruits Srchomology 2 (SH2)- and Src-homology 3 (SH3)-domain comprising roteins that sub sume proteins such as Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 (STAT3), Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 5 (STAT5), and Src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase 2 (SHP2) [139]. The phosphorylated Tyr1138  residue of obRb recruits STAT3 and STAT5 which are subsequently phosphorylated by JAK2 at Tyr705  and Tyr694  respectively. The phosphorylation STAT3 and STAT5 causes their disengagement from the leptin receptor, results in the dimerization of STAT proteins via their phosphotyrosine residues in the SH2 domains [140-142], and culminates in their nuclear translocation [142].In the nucleus, STAT dimers bind to distinct motifs or elements in the DNA called ? -IFN-activated site (GAS) in the enhancer regions of target genes and thereby modulate and regulate gene expression of target genes [142-146]. In the nucleus, the STAT signaling is abrogated by dephosphorylation and subsequent export of STAT proteins from the nucleus to the cytosol [142,14 4,147] or by targeted degradation of the STAT proteins via the Ubiquitin Proteasomal System (UPS) [148].The JAK/STAT pathway is negatively regulated by three classes of proteins, namely – suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS), protein inhibitors of activated STATs (PIAS), and protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTP) [149]. There are eight members of the SOCS family and their expression is induced by JAK/STAT signaling (STAT3 in particular) thereby suggesting the existence of a negative feedback loop that abrogates JAK/STAT signaling [150].The SOCS proteins negatively regulate the JAK/STAT pathway by competitively engaging and occupying the phosphotyrosine residues in obRb via their SH2 domains and obviating the recruitment of STAT proteins to obRb, thereby precluding STAT activation [150,151]. SOCS proteins via their SH2 domains also directly bind to JAK2 and extenuate the kinase activity of JAK2 [150,151]. The PIAS proteins negatively regulate the JAK/STAT signaling pathway by impeding the binding of STAT proteins to the response elements in the DNA by physically interacting and binding with STAT proteins via their zinc-binding RING-finger domains [151].SHP1 and SHP2 are most well characterized protein tyrosine phosphatases implicated in the negative regulation of the JAK/STAT pathway [149]. SHP1 and SHP2 possess two SH2 domains and therefore bind to phosphotyrosines of JAK2 and obRb and effectuate the dephosphorylation of JAK2 and obRb thereby terminating the JAK/STAT signaling [149]. ERK pathway The extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) pathway is an integral part of a larger signaling network called mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway that is activated by leptin signaling via the leptin receptor (obRb).While phosphorylation of Tyr1138  and Tyr1077  are both requisite and mediate the activation of STAT3 and STAT5 respectively, the phosphorylation of Tyr985  of obRb mediates the activation of ERK pathway [138]. Leptin signaling via the obRb evokes the actuation of ERK pathway, both centrally and peripherally, as well as in  in vivo  and  in vitro  experimental paradigms [85]. Leptin evokes the activation of ERK pathway by both JAK2-mediated and JAK2-independent signaling effects [94,152].Contemporary evidence has implicated the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 and the adaptor protein Grb2 (growth receptor bound 2) as the requisite mediators in the leptin-induced activation of ERK signaling pathway [153]. Leptin signaling also activates other members and signaling cascades subsumed under the MAPK signaling pathway, namely p38 [154-157] and JNK pathways [156]. PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway Leptin signaling also induces the activation of the ubiquitous, pervasive, nutrient-sensitive anabolic, and the broad spectrum PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway [152,158-161].Empirical evidence has demonstrated that the adaptor proteins IRS1 (insulin receptor substrate 1) and IRS2 (insulin receptor substrate 2) mediate the leptin-obRb induce d activation of PI3K-Akt pathway [94,158,162]. A multitude of studies have demonstrated that leptin induces the activation of Akt via phosphorylation of Akt at Ser473[163,164]. As a consequence, Akt activation is ensued upon leptin signaling which results in inhibition of GSK3? through phosphorylation at Ser9  residue [165-167].Evidently leptin also activates the serine/threonine kinase mammalian target of Rapamycin (mTOR) in the hypothalamus and macrophages [168,169] through the PI3K-Akt pathway [170]. mTOR is an evolutionary conserved kinase that modulates translation of several mRNA transcripts involved in cell growth and proliferation. mTOR regulates translation by phosphorylation and attenuation of the inhibitor of mRNA translation, eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein (4E-BP) [171-175], as well as through the phosphorylation and activation of S6 kinase (p70S6K1) [176,177]. TOR is autophosphorylated at Ser2481  and exhibits spontaneous intrinsic kinase activity u nder the activation of Akt [178,179]. mTOR phosphorylation and activation is negatively regulated by the TSC1/TSC2 protein complex [170]. Akt phosphorylates TSC2 causing disintegration of the TSC1/TSC2 complex which consequently results in mTOR activation [180]. Furthermore, Akt has been shown to directly phosphorylate mTOR at Ser2448residues and consequently activate mTOR [181,182].Therefore, Akt positively regulates mTOR activation by direct phosphorylation at Ser2448  as well as by indirect means which involves relieving the repressive effects of the upstream inhibitor TSC1/2 complex. Thus leptin, by virtue of its inherent ability to activate Akt, is expected to increase mTOR phosphorylation and activity. AMPK-SIRT1 pathway The 5’AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) is the master regulatory kinase termed the â€Å"fuel gauge† that integrates signals from upstream mediators and effectors of hormones and cytokines to maintain metabolic homeostasis [183].AMPK activati on leads to increase ? -oxidation of fatty acids in the mitochondria and inhibition of lipogenesis [184,185]. Multiple lines of evidence have cogently demonstrated that leptin activates AMPK and consequently increases fatty acid oxidation [186-188]. One exception to this is the hypothalamic neurons, where leptin inhibits AMPK activation to evoke satiety and other hypothalamic effects of leptin [189-191]. In general, AMPK plays a catabolic role and engenders energy production via effects on glucose and lipid metabolism.AMPK activation also effectuates the induction of the NAD+  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ dependent deacetylase SIRT1 (silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog) [192,193], a metabolic master regulator unequivocally implicated in ageing and the regulation of lifespan [194-198] as well as regulating metabolism [199,200]. The anorexic effect of leptin mediated by the activation of POMC neurons in the hypothalamus is contingent on SIRT1 expression and activation in the neurons of the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus [201]. Go to: ————————————————- Role of leptin in Alzheimer diseaseAlzheimer Disease (AD) is a progressive, debilitating and the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder typified by memory impairment and cognitive dysfunction eventually leading to fatality. The gross pathologic hallmarks of autopsied brains of patients with AD include atrophy with widened sulci and narrowed gyri in the temporal, parietal, and frontal lobes as well as the neocortex and cingulated gyrus areas of the cerebral cortex. The entorhinal cortex, amygdala, hippocampus and the para-hippocampal gyrus also exhibit pronounced atrophy due to neuronal loss [202,203].There is a decrease in gross weight of brain by 10-15% in AD patients [202]. The thickness of the six cortical layers (cortical ribbon) is usually reduced by 10-20% in AD [202] and ventricular dilation is apparent prominently in the temporal horn as a consequence of the atrophy of the amygdala and the hippocampus. Furthermore, there is a propensity for the loss of larger neurons than the loss of smaller neurons or glial cells in AD [202]. Microscopically, AD is characterized by two most common and distinct â€Å"hallmark† microscopic lesions namely senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFT).Senile plaques are extraneuronal deposits of accumulated and aggregated amyloid-? (A? ) protein in the brain parenchyma, while the NFT are intraneuronal aggregates of protein tau in the hyperphosphorylated state. Other pathological features of the AD brain include synaptic loss, neuronal and dendritic loss, neuropil threads, granulovacuolar degeneration, dystrophic neurites, Hirano bodies, and cerebrovascular amyloid deposition. There is substantial evidence that leptin modulates A? production and metabolism. Chronic peripheral leptin administration in Tg2576 mice has been reported to reduce the brain A? evels [204]. Moreover leptin also decreases the BACE1 activity in SH-SY5Y cell line [204]. Leptin decreases tau phosphorylation explicitly at residues Ser202, Ser396, and Ser404  in retinoic acidinduced differentiated SH-SY5Y cells, differentiated human NT2 cells (NT2N), and rat primary cortical neurons [205-207]. Leptin also increases synaptogenesis and aids in memory formation in the hippocampus and is purported to be a cognitive enhancer [133]. Leptin has been shown to convert STP into LTP in hippocampal cultures and hippocampal slices [132].Recent evidence suggests that leptin facilitates spatial learning and memory [130] and also increases neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of adult mice [134]. Recent epidemiological studies have also unequivocally implicated decreased leptin levels in the pathogenesis of AD. In the Framingham prospective study, 785 subjects were followed between 1990 and 1994 from the original Framingham cohort [208]. The study conclud ed that leptin levels were inversely related to the risk of developing dementia of the Alzheimer type [208].A year preceding the findings of Lieb and colleagues, a morphometric study in Japan conducted by Narita and group found higher leptin levels were positively correlated with higher hippocampal volumes [209]. Leptin decreases Amyloid-? (A? ) levels by attenuating the genesis and augmenting the clearance of the peptide The A? peptide is derived from a two-step successive proteolytic cleavage of Amyloid-? precursor protein (A? PP) [210]. In the first step, A? PP is cleaved by the membrane-bound protease BACE1 (? -site APP cleaving enzyme 1) (also called ? secretase) to generate CTF? (carboxy terminal fragment ? ) (also known as C99 fragment) [211-215] which in the second step is subsequently cleaved by the ? -secretase complex to generate A? peptide [216-218]. According to the â€Å"amyloid cascade hypothesis†, A? is considered as the culpable factor in the instigation and progression of all the neurodegenerative events that characterize AD [219]. A plethora of studies have demonstrated that leptin decreases A? levels in several  in vivo  and  in vitro  paradigms [204,220-223]. Leptin has been shown to mitigate A? roduction by extenuating BACE1 activity in neural cultures [204]. Recent studies have implicated the AMPK/SIRT1 pathway in the leptin-induced modulation of A? levels [222]. Emerging data from our unpublished work has not only corroborated the finding that leptin regulates A? metabolism via SIRT1, but also implicated the ubiquitous transcription factor NF-? B as a SIRT1 target downstream in the modulation of A? genesis (unpublished). Leptin decreases A? levels by targeting all facets of A? metabolism, namely – production, clearance, and degradation.We have shown that leptin increases the expression levels of insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) putatively by activating the Akt pathway [223], thus augmenting the degradation of A?. Fur thermore, leptin also increases the expression levels of LRP1 [223], suggesting that leptin may foster the uptake of A? by astrocytes and microglia or reuptake of A? by neurons and therefore target A? for intracellular degradation or for clearance across the blood-brain-barrier (BBB). Leptin also effectuates the ApoE-mediated clearance of A? [204].Specifically, leptin dose-dependently increased the LRP1-mediated uptake of ApoE-bound A? , therefore committing A? toward the endosomal/lysosomal degradation pathway [204]. Leptin attenuates BACE1 expression and activity The first line of evidence linking leptin signaling dyshomeostasis in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease emanated from the work of Tezapsidis and colleagues [204], who demonstrated in neural cultures from transgenic mice that leptin mitigates BACE1 activity by evoking changes in lipid composition of lipid rafts of cell membranes.Furthermore, the study also demonstrated that the lipolytic ability of leptin as a conseque nce of increased ? -oxidation of fatty acids and decrease  de novo  synthesis of fatty acids and triglycerides underlies the mechanistic link between the effects of leptin on lipid composition of membranes and BACE1 activity. Recent data from our studies [223] and other laboratories [221] cogently demonstrate that leptin negatively regulates BACE1 expression, both  in vitroand  in vitro  paradigms.Moreover, Greco and colleagues have attributed this effect of reduced BACE1 expression on the ability of leptin to induce PPAR? expression and activation [221]. Indeed, leptin is a well characterized inducer of PPAR? expression and activity [220,224]. In light of this, it is important to reiterate that multiple lines of evidence exist in current literature demonstrating the role of PPAR? as a negative regulator of BACE1 expression [225]. Another mediator of leptin induced modulation of BACE1 expression may be the transcription factor STAT3.The BACE1 promoter contains a multitude of STAT3 binding sites [226]. Multiple lines of evidence have implicated STAT3 in the regulation of BACE1 expression [226-228]. Leptin may also modulate BACE1 activity via the activation of the PI3K/Akt and ERK signaling pathways [229]. BACE1 expression is also modulated by the master transcription factor NF-? B [230]. We have found that leptin represses NF-? B transcriptional activity via induction of SIRT1 expression and activity and thereby attenuates BACE1 expression (unpublished).Furthermore, inhibition of SIRT1 activity significantly compromised the mitigating effect of leptin on BACE1 expression (unpublished). Therefore, the entire range of discrete signal transduction pathways activated by leptin may be implicated in the modulation of BACE1 expression. Leptin mitigates tau phosphorylation It is now the consensus that tau hyperphosphorylation precedes and leads to PHF formation in NFT [231] and aberrant tau hyperphosphorylation is implicated in neurodegeneration in AD [232-23 6].Recent studies by Tezapsidis and colleagues as well as our work has cogently demonstrated that leptin decreases hyperphosphorylation of tau, primarily by the activation of known canonical signal transduction pathway coupled to leptin receptors. Firstly, Greco  et al. demonstrated  in vitro, in SH-SY5Y and NTera-2 human neuronal cell lines, that leptin reduces the phosphorylation of tau at Ser202, Ser396, and Ser404  residues [205]. In the same study, it was shown that leptin was ~300-fold more potent than insulin at mitigating tau phosphorylation and the activation of AMPK pathway was implicated in mediating this effect [205].The following year, the same group systematically investigated the involvement of other signal transduction pathways activated by leptin that may contribute to the attenuation of tau phosphorylation and concluded that leptin-induced activation of Akt, p38 MAPK, as well as AMPK were all intricately involved [206]. Notably, of great mechanistic importanc e, was the revelation that all the three aforementioned pathways activated by leptin, culminated in the phosphorylation of the tau kinase GSK3? at Ser9  residue leading to the inhibition of its kinase activity.Therefore, leptin-induced activation of Akt, p38 MAPK, and AMPK signal transduction pathways converged at the focal point – GSK3? , a bona fide tau kinase [206,207]. Data from our studies carried out in organotypic slices from the hippocampi of adult rabbits has also cogently demonstrated that leptin inhibits GSK3? -induced tau phosphorylation at AT8 (Ser202, Thr205) and PHF1 (Ser396, Ser404) epitopes via the activation of Akt [223,237]. Of greater importance and relevance, was the finding that 8-weeks of leptin treatment in CRND8 transgenic mice resulted in a ~2-fold decrease in tau phosphorylation at AT8 and PHF1 epitopes [221].Leptin fosters synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity Several studies have shown that synaptic dysfunction and synaptic loss are the cardina l hallmarks of incipient AD [238-244]. Electron microscopy [238,241,245-248], immunohistochemical and biochemical studies [240,249-251] have demonstrated that synaptic loss in the neocortex and the hippocampus is an early episode in Alzheimer’s disease [252,253]. Synaptic loss is also the most important structural correlate of cognitive impairment in AD [250,254-260]. Synaptic dysfunction can be detected in patients diagnosed ith mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a condition which may or may not progress to AD and characterized by many as a prodromal state of AD [247,261]. Leptin plays an indispensable role in learning, memory, and maintenance of synaptic plasticity [262]. Leptin receptor mutant  db/db  mice and  fa/fa  rats have deficits in spatial memory and inadequate short term memory processing as assessed by the Morris water maze [130] and T-maze footshock avoidance test paradigms [129]. In the CA1 region of the hippocampus, leptin exclusively enhances the NMDA r eceptor-mediated synaptic transmission [132].Leptin facilitates the trafficking of NMDA receptors to the plasma membrane and this may contribute to the effect of leptin on enhancing the NMDA receptor-mediated current [133]. This was also corroborated in a  Xenopus  oocyte model system expressing recombinant NMDA receptors [132]. Leptin evokes the conversion of STP to LTP in acute hippocampal slices. Further delving into the molecular mechanism underlying this effect has implicated the PI3K/Akt and ERK signaling cascades at the nexus as the inhibitors of these signaling pathways mitigated this effect of leptin [132].Furthermore, in the CA1 region of the hippocampus, leptin also fosters the induction of a novel form of LTD and this effect was attributed to NMDA receptor activation [263]. The study by Durakoglugil also examined the signal transduction cascades involved in the induction of this novel LTD by leptin and concluded that this effect was contingent on the PI3K signaling c ascade, but independent of the ERK signaling pathway [263]. In addition to regulating synaptic strength by modulation of LTP and LTD, leptin also fosters synaptogenesis.The leptin deficient  ob/ob  mice have decreased synapse density and exogenous leptin corrects this deficit in these mice [264,265]. Leptin also induces the expression of a multitude of pre- and postsynaptic proteins such as synapsin2A and synaptophysin in the hippocampus [266]. Leptin also has a profound effect on dendritic morphology. Leptin augments filopodial stabilization, fosters mobility and boosts their density, thus promoting synapse formation [267]. Interestingly, this effect of leptin on filopodial stability and density is contingent on ERK signaling pathway and not on the PI3K signaling pathway [267].Leptin increases neuronal survival and mitigates cell death There is growing consensus that leptin is a growth and survival factor in the CNS. Leptin increases the viability of SH-SY5Y cells and suppresse s apoptosis by down-regulation of caspase-10 and TRAIL and this effect is contingent on the ability of leptin to activate the JAK-STAT, PI3K-Akt, as well as ERK signaling pathways [268]. Leptin has been shown to exert neuroprotective properties in cultured MN9D rat dopaminergic cells against 6-OHDA.Leptin also averted the 6-OHDA-induced dopaminergic cell loss in the substantia nigra of mice when administered intracranially [269]. This pro-survival effect of leptin on dopaminergic neurons was attributed to the JAK2-dependent activation of the ERK signaling pathway resulting in increased levels of survival factors p-CREB and BDNF [269]. Our recent work has unequivocally demonstrated that leptin upregulates the expression of Insulin-like Growth Factor – 1 (IGF-1), a known neurotrophic and survival factor in the brain [270].Leptin has also been shown to attenuate apoptotic cell death of cultured cortical neurons in an  in vitro  oxygen-glucose deprivation model of global isch emia [271]. Furthermore, the study by Zhang  et al. , also cogently showed that intraperitoneal administration of leptin in mice reduced the infarct volume and significantly improved behavioral parameters in a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model of global ischemia [271]. This effect of leptin was attributed to the activation of ERK signaling pathway as the general inhibitor of ERK signaling abolished this effect of leptin, both  in vitro  and  in vivo  [271].Another study employing hippocampal cultures has demonstrated that leptin inhibits neuronal cell loss in response to growth factor withdrawal and oxidative insult by evoking JAK-STAT activation leading to enhanced expression Mn-SOD and Bcl-xL and stabilizing the mitochondrial membrane potential [135]. Leptin also mitigated neuronal loss in response to excitotoxic insult evoked by glutamate in hippocampal cultures by the aforementioned molecular mechanism [135]. Leptin also protected the hippocampal neurons fr om kainite-induced damage in response to excitotoxicity evoked seizures in a mice model of temporal lobe epilepsy [135].A recent study found that leptin also attenuates MPP+-induced cell death in neuronal cultures via the activation of STAT3 and inducing the expression of UCP-2 that culminates in the obviation of mitochondrial dysfunction by MPP+  [272]. Of particular interest is the finding that cultured cortical neurons secrete prodigious amounts of leptin in response to oxygen-glucose-serum deprivation that results in enhanced expression of IL-1? and increased intransigence to apoptotic cell death [273].Moreover, neutralization of this endogenous leptin with an antibody resulted in increased susceptibility of these cultured cortical neurons to oxygen-glucose-serum deprivation – induced cell death [273]. The salutary effects of leptin on neuronal viability and function have also been corroborated by electrophysiological studies. One such study has cogently demonstrated th at leptin combats the hypoxia-induced inhibition of spontaneously firing hippocampal neurons by activating the BK channels (large conductance Ca2+  activated K+  channels) [274].Leptin induces proliferation of neuronal progenitors – evokes neurogenesis As Alzheimer disease is typified with selective neuronal loss in the hippocampus and other regions of the brain, the debunking of the dogma that neurogenesis occurs exclusively prenatally and the revelation that neurogenesis persists in the adult mammalian brain has opened novel therapeutic avenues to combat the neuronal loss in AD. Chronic leptin treatment increases hippocampal neurogenesis in mice and induces proliferation of adult hippocampal progenitor cultures [134].This effect of leptin on adult hippocampal neurogenesis is attributed to increased cell proliferation in the dentate gyrus and not enhanced cell differentiation or cell survival [134]. The study by Garza and colleagues unequivocally implicated the JAK2-STAT 3 and PI3K-Akt signal transduction pathways in the leptin induced enhancement of hippocampal neurogenesis [134]. Furthermore, leptin rescues the attenuation in adult hippocampal neurogenesis in a mouse model of chronic unpredictable stress-evoked depression via the inhibition of GSK3? nd subsequent stabilization of ? -catenin [275]. Leptin has also been documented to evoke neurogenesis and angiogenesis in a mouse stroke model (Avraham  et al. , 2011). Go to: ————————————————- Conclusion Here we have reviewed the contemporary knowledge on the protective role of the adipokine leptin and its signaling in Alzheimer’s disease. In conspectus, leptin impinges on all facets of Alzheimer’s disease pathophysiology (Figure 1). These attributes of leptin such as the decrease in A? production and increase of A? learance, reduction in tau hyperphosphorylation as well as increased synaptogenesis, increased memory, increased spatial learning, and increased neurogenesis catapult leptin treatment as a unique therapeutic intervention and an indispensable tool in the elucidation of biochemical mechanisms involved in the etiology of the sporadic form of Alzheimer’s disease. Marwarha , G. and Ghribi, O. Leptin signaling and Alzheimer’s disease Marwarha , G. and Ghribi, O. (2012) Leptin signaling and Alzheimer’s disease. American Journal of Neurodegenerative Disease, 1 (3), p. 45-265. Lifestyle nonpharmacological interventions can have a deep effect on cognitive aging. We have reviewed the available literature on the effectiveness of physical activity, intellectual stimulation, and socialization on the incidence of dementia and on the course of dementia itself. Even though physical activity appears to be beneficial in both delaying dementia onset and in the course of the disease, more research is needed before intellectual stimulation a nd socialization can be considered as treatments and prevention of the disease.Through our paper, we found that all three nonpharmacological treatments provide benefits to cognition and overall well-being in patients with age-related cognitive impairments. These interventions may be beneficial in the management of dementia. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with devastating consequences [1]. Despite being the most common cause of dementia, affecting approximately 5. 4 million Americans [2] and almost 50% of people over the age 85 [3], no cure has yet been discovered.Efforts are also focusing on the development of more effective strategies to slow the progression of AD to increase the quality of life of those affected. Even a two-year delay in disease onset would reduce the prevalence of AD among Americans by two million people within fifty years [4]. If an intervention that delayed the onset of AD by five years had been applied back in 1997, we would have seen a 50% reduction in AD incidence [4]. Research on strategies to slow the development and progression of AD is arguably more important now than ever before, since the number of people with AD is expected to nearly triple over he next forty years [4], and dementia is the most important contributor to disability in the elderly [5]. Among others, three nonpharmacological interventions are particularly relevant as they might positively influence cognition, general functioning, and overall quality of life. These three strategies arephysical exercise,  intellectual stimulation,  and  social interaction. While there are studies that evaluate the role of individual and multimodal interventions on AD, there is a lack of literature on the combination of all three.The purpose of this paper is to review key areas of the literature that focus on the effects of physical exercise, intellectual stimulation, and socialization strategies on AD evolution, as they collectively play an important ro le in the management of Alzheimer's disease. Physical exercise encapsulates both aerobic exercises (e. g. , walking and cycling) and nonaerobic exercises (e. g. , strength and resistance training; flexibility and balance exercises). For intellectual stimulation, we examine studies that have evaluated the prognostic effects of either cognitive hobbies (e. g. reading, word puzzles, and card games) or cognitive training (e. g. , computer training games/paradigms that target specific cognitive domains such as memory and attention). Social interaction is defined as the participation of an AD patient in group-related activities, such as mealtime conversations, support groups, or other forms of social engagement. The health benefits attributed to physical activity are numerous and well known. Exercise has been associated with a lower incidence in many chronic diseases, such as coronary heart disease [6], type 2 diabetes [7], obesity [8], cancer [9], bone loss [10], and high blood pressure [11].We have reviewed the effects of physical exercise on cognition. Higher cardiorespiratory fitness has been related to higher scores on tests of cognitive function [12]. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials examining the relationship between exercise and cognition showed modest improvements in attention, processing speed, executive function, and memory among older adults in the treatment arms [13]. This is highly relevant for the elderly population, as it suggests that physical activity can serve as a preventative measure against age-related cognitive decline [14].Several large longitudinal studies followed older adults without cognitive impairments at baseline and measured rate of incident dementia to clarify the relationship between physical activity and incident cognitive loss. A large prospective study by Podewils et al. identified an inverse relationship between physical activity and dementia risk [15]. Compared to no exercise, physical activity has been linked wi th reduced risks of developing cognitive impairment and dementia [16] with the risk for dementia being further reduced with increasing levels of physical activity.Larson and colleagues found that persons who exercised three or more times per week had a reduced risk of developing dementia compared to those who exercised less, and the reduction was more marked among those with the poorest physical function at baseline [17]. These results were corroborated by Buchman et al. who found that participants in the lowest percentiles of physical activity had more than twice the risk of developing dementia than those in the highest percentiles of physical activity [18].Furthermore, Lautenschlager et al. demonstrated that these results might be transferable to adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and, thus, at high risk for dementia; participants who underwent exercise training showed modest improvements in cognition after six months [19]. Physical exercise has, therefore, been recommen ded as a preventative measure of mild cognitive impairment and dementia [20,  21]. There is much less research focusing on the effect of physical activity in AD patients.This may be due to the challenges of implementing an exercise regime while managing the behavioral and emotional disturbances in AD patients, particularly in the later stages of the disease. However, the results in the available literature are promising. Early research involving AD patients in nonrandomized controlled trials showed significant cognitive improvements among participants who underwent cycling training and somatic and isotonic-relaxation exercises [22,  23]. Physical exercise may have beneficial effects in AD patients beyond cognition as well.A meta-analysis on 30 randomized controlled trials that employed exercise, behavioral and environmental manipulations in patients with cognitive impairment found exercise had positive effects on strength and cardiovascular fitness in addition to improvements in behavior and cognition [24–26]. Further evidence supporting multifaceted positive effects of exercise on AD can be traced to recent randomized controlled trials of physical exercise regimes on AD patients (Table 1). Compared to controls, patients in the intervention programs showed better physical functioning (functional reach, walking, and mobility).After treatment, these patients also showed improved performance of activities of daily living (ADLs), and less cognitive decline and cognitive improvement in some cases. Physical exercise, therefore, appears to be beneficial for AD patients. While the majority of the studies did not find any differences in depression, one study by Steinberg found increased depression and decreased quality of life in patients who underwent the exercise intervention [31]. Further research into the effect of physical exercise on mood and quality of life in AD patients is, therefore, required.When considering the role of exercise on AD, it is impor tant to note that any positive results may be due to a placebo effect, even in randomized controlled trials. However, due to the varied nature of the outcome measures used in these studies, it is unlikely that every intervention group demonstrated significant gains over the controls due to a placebo effect alone. Furthermore, control group members never appeared to show any improvement and often showed higher rates of functional and cognitive decline.Enhanced neuroplasticity might be underlying the improvements seen. Colcombe and colleagues demonstrated that older adults without dementia who performed aerobic exercises had greater grey and white matter volumes compared to adults who engaged in stretching and toning exercises [38]. Exercise has also been associated with functional connectivity between brain networks often affected by age, such as the default mode, frontal parietal, and frontal executive networks, in older adults without dementia [39].While randomized controlled trial s in AD patients examining the relationship between neuroplasticity and exercise are underway, correlational studies examining brain volumes and cardiorespiratory fitness have been done. In AD patients, cardiorespiratory fitness has been associated with brain volume. VO2peak, peak oxygen consumption, has been positively correlated with greater whole brain volume and white matter volume [40], notably in the inferior parietal lobule, hippocampal, and parahippocampal regions [41].Future results of randomized controlled trials will improve our knowledge in this field of research. Overall, physical activity offers promising outcomes for cognition and physical health in the elderly population and AD patients. Engagement in intellectually stimulating activities has been linked with reduced risk of developing AD and intellectual stimulation has been widely explored as a nonpharmacological treatment option for dementia [42]. Among cognitively ormal older persons, randomized control trials em ploying intellectual training concluded that cognitive interventions produce protective and potentially long lasting positive effects in various cognitive domains as well as activities of daily living [43]. There is also evidence that frequent engagement in hobbies, including reading, puzzles, and games, for at least six hours per week reduces the risk of incident dementia [44]. The concept of intellectual stimulation as a preventative measure for dementia in healthy older adults can be parallel to the notion of building a â€Å"compensatory mechanism† or â€Å"cognitive reserve† [45–48].Cognitive reserve refers to the hypothesis that individual differences shaped by inherent characteristics and external sources including intelligence, years of education, occupation, and intellectual activities, may provide neural protective support against dementia [45–47]. It has been argued that these collective life experiences may contribute to building cognitive res erve and, thus, provide skills to compensate for AD pathology [45–47].In other words, a greater cognitive reserve might delay the appearance of dementia despite the presence of neuropathology, after which a rapid progression of cognitive decline may ensue once pathology is significant enough to result in AD diagnosis. Thus, AD patients with higher education and occupation accomplishments suffer more rapid decline in cognitive abilities when compared to AD patients with less education and occupational attainment following diagnosis [49]. Another study by Helzner and colleagues [50] investigated the relationship between premorbid leisure activity and rate of cognitive decline in AD patients.Leisure activities were classified into four categories: intellectual, social, physical, and other. Higher-frequency participation in intellectual leisure activities prior to AD diagnosis was associated with delayed AD onset followed by faster cognitive decline. The study by Helzner and coll eagues [50] provides evidence for the benefits of intellectual stimulation on slowing down AD development. Besides reducing the risk of dementia, cognitive interventions later in life may affect functional decline in AD.Treiber and colleagues [51] explored the association between engaging in cognitively stimulating activities in late life and the rate of cognitive decline in incident AD. This study included a wide range of intellectual activities that required varying levels of cognitive demand, for example, completing puzzles, reading, watching television, listening to music, and cooking. The results suggested that higher-frequency participation in stimulating activities in early stages of dementia resulted in slower cognitive decline.However, as time progressed there was an overall decrease in participation in activities, which might reflect the nature of AD in terms of functional abilities. Intellectual stimulation can be divided into several categories including cognitive stimul ation, cognitive t

Argument paper - Heart disease only affects the old Essay

Argument paper - Heart disease only affects the old - Essay Example Most people, however, do not feel that they need to worry about heart disease until they are older. Despite the fact that most people believe the heart disease is an illness of age and inevitable, through changing lifestyles and addressing bad habits throughout the population heart disease could be almost all but eliminated. Although heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States, heart disease is more of a symptomatic result rather than a singular affliction. One of the greatest myths about heart disease is that if it runs in the family there is nothing that can be done to prevent it. The American Heart Association established the idea that this is a myth and that if people take better care of themselves through becoming active, controlling cholesterol, eating better and maintaining healthy weight and sugar control that it is possible to avoid the eventuality of heart disease. The American Heart Association also discusses the problem of people believing that age is relevant to cardiovascular diseases. It is true that more often cardiovascular disease will affect a senior citizen; however the young and middle-aged can also develop heart problems, especially now that obesity has become an epidemic. There are many people who believe that the way in which they live when they are young, has no bearing on what their life will be like when they are older. In many cases, people believe that the young have the ability to have poor lifestyles and survive while they do not need to actually worry about it until they enter middle age (Bell). However, evidence shows that this is not the case. In fact, the way in which a mother takes care of her health during pregnancy appears to have a great deal of effect on the way in which a child has certain health opportunities throughout his or her life (Wintour and Owens 10). Therefore, if the effects that a mother has on a childs

TEXTBOOK-Brinkley, American History, Connecting with the Past, Volume Essay - 1

TEXTBOOK-Brinkley, American History, Connecting with the Past, Volume II, McGraw Hill chapters23-24 - Essay Example Despite the fact that the stock market began regaining some of its losses towards the end of 1930, it was not sufficient to avert the onset of the economic depression. Another main cause was bank failures. The 1930s experienced over 9,000 bank failures. There was no insurance for bank deposits, hence with the failure of the banks, individuals simply ended up losing their savings. Because the surviving banks were not certain about the economic condition and had concerns about their own survival, they were not willing to issue new loans. This aggravated the existent situation and led to lesser expenditure. In addition to that was a drop in purchasing across the board. As the stock market had crashed and the advancement of further economic conundrums heightened, people across all classes stopped buying items. The result was a drop in the number of produced items, hence a reduced workforce. Individuals who had been laid off from their jobs were not in a position to deposit payments for i tems they had purchased via installment plans, leading to repossession of these items. The rate of accumulation of inventory began to increase. There was a rise of over 25% in unemployment which of course meant reduced spending that could abate the existent economic condition. The American policy with Europe also contributed in a great way to the Great Depression. With businesses starting to fall, the Smoot Hawley Tariff of 1930 was forged by the government in a bid to protect American governments. The tariff imposed high tariffs on imports resulting in reduced trade between foreign countries and America, coupled with retaliation in the economy (Brinkley, 604) President Hoover and the Republican Response to the Crisis In a similar fashion to the economic crisis of 2008, president Hoover assumed office immediately following the stock market crash in 1929. His response to the economic downturn was remarkably similar to the current response by the Federal Reserve and SEC. He did not wa nt to meddle with the markets and looked to offer support to the banking system by making an offer to fund business in return for collateral. As such, he started programs of public works. The lengths taken by Hoover were obscured by the great lengths that the Franklin Roosevelt administration took. Public works programs during this period had a sizeable impact upon a generation reliant on soup lines to survive. Attempts by president Hover to resolve the economic crisis were in most instances unsuccessful. His loss to Franklin Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential therefore was not a surprise. Hoover thereafter devoted a lot of time over the next dozen years to the fight by the Republicans against the New Deal, and believed that President Roosevelt would function to compromise the political system of the United States with his extensive government programs. Six weeks following the death of Roosevelt, Hoover held a meeting with President Harry Truman in May 1945. Together, they planned t o recover post-war Europe. Upon a request by Truman, Hoover travelled across the globe to afford the president a personal statement on food needs of the world. More significantly, Hoover rallied his fellow Republicans to offer support to President Truman’s food relief programs. Hoover worked as chairman of the newly-formed Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch which later came to be known as the Hoover commission, and worked in

History of Russia and Its Economy Research Paper

History of Russia and Its Economy - Research Paper Example This paper will thus talk about the country Russia by focusing on the relationship between the country and its economy since 1910 to today in a bid to identify some of the risks associated with opening an ICT related business in the country (Yergin and Stanislaw, 2002). Imperial Russia (1910-1922). During this time, Russia was regarded as the largest country by land mass and population in Europe and an additional prestige of the biggest army in the world. Being the largest source of agricultural products most of which it exported, in addition, to the overwhelming mineral resources, its trade was more of a give and take. Literary it stood to gain a lot from these exports thus making it a prime beneficiary of foreign investment (Yergin and Stanislaw, 2002). This was emphasized by the fact that markets were free in the making. It is during this time that Russia emerged as a capitalist economy. This resulted from the capability it had of feeding its population without any assistance from outside. However, this economic progress was only tied to the peasant agricultural production rather than the commercial sector. ... This was to be the beginning of inflation that would later be fuelled by the attempt of the government to print more money. The occurrence of the First World War and domestic revolutions came as a major setback in Russia’s economy that left a story people have lived to tell. The free markets that once existed were no longer available, for it saw a monopoly on prices that were subjugated by the government. USSR (1922-1952). It is at this stage that the future of the soviet economy is established. The government’s involvement in implementing strategies that could raise them above this crisis led to an immediate and theatrical step up in the economy. The government decided to introduce incentives to farmers to enable them farmland, in addition, to the opening up lands for privatisation. This functioned to limit small trade and increase industrial production. It is noticeable that the world was hit by the great depression during this time. However, due to these strategies, as the rest of the world dragged, the soviet was on the move trying to wipe of the dust and forge ahead (Yergin and Stanislaw, 2002). However, due to the collective nature of the Soviet agriculture, the economy did not improve as much. This followed stiffer regulations on production that saw the government prioritise industrial growth with steel, coal, power chemicals, and the military topping the list. It is at this time that the government resorts to acknowledge quantity over quality with efforts to maintain a high productivity. This indeed sailed the country through making it the largest employer in Europe by the fall of 1940. Even as, the Second World War started, the Soviet had established

Dietary(Nutritional) recommendations for Asthma Essay

Dietary(Nutritional) recommendations for Asthma - Essay Example The presence of antioxidants in foods rich in these substances provides a relief of asthma symptoms (Gelfand 2012). But, more research needs to be conducted to understand the relationship between diet and asthma. Also, it is unclear if taking supplements provide definite protection against asthma development. This is because many studies which used vitamins and supplements to reverse effects of asthma have remained unsuccessful. Therefore, it is considered unlikely that food supplements will improve control on asthma (Gelfand 2012). It is important to reduce intake of alcohol and coffee because GERD or acid reflux is a big problem in 70% of asthma patients (CDC 2011). Bronchodilators are used to treat asthma and to avoid nasty drug-food interactions, it is recommended to take them with food to avoid stomach upset (Bellows & Moore 2013). In pregnant patients, treatment with inhaled corticosteroids like prednisolone is important to reduce risk of asthma exacerbations during pregnancy ( National Asthma Council Australia 2013). National Asthma Council Australia 2013, ‘Asthma and Healthy Living. An information paper for health professionals’, viewed 12 May 2014,

International Business Management ( Final Project) Assignment

International Business Management ( Final Project) - Assignment Example The global expansion had increased their profit and market share in the global market; however, the company has also experienced numerous challenges in emerging markets like China. China was regarded as the second largest growing nation in the world during 2010, whose annual growth was above 10% (US-Pacific Rim International, Inc., 2010). This has attracted many companies especially, the retail companies, to expand their business in China so as to cater the needs of the world largest population. Despite the growing economy and lucrative business market, the foreign companies failed to continue a successful business in China because of various strategic issues (US-Pacific Rim International, Inc., 2010). The same situation was encountered by Tesco PLC who entered China through foreign direct investment in 2004. The reason for selecting China is that, many well known international brands such as Wal-Mart, Carrefour and Tesco had to face a number of challenges and even failure due to a number of reasons; few of which is discussed in the report with respect to Tesco Plc. Therefore, it is quite interesting to know the fact behind the failure of Tesco plc to capture the Chinese market. Tesco Plc entered China during 2004 with the help of 50:50 ventures with local retailer Hymall. Nevertheless, soon after few years in 2006, the company bought another 40% of the venture (Tesco, 2015; Telegraph Media Group Limited, 2015). Tesco PLC in China employs around 21,000 employees and had opened more than 62 stores and has the goal of opening hundreds of stores so as to reach every corner of China during 2009. Analysts have depicted the fact that the Chinese market has the ability to become the largest country for the business of Tesco. Nevertheless, Tesco Plc had experienced a number of issues in China, which have forced them to close many stores in the past three years (Song, 2013). The main issue was related to the failure

Liabilities of the company Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Liabilities of the company - Essay Example The use of insurance is a great way to protect assets. The three most important items that must be protected by insurance are property, income, and liabilities. Most large corporations have billions of dollars in physical assets. These assets such as buildings and machinery should have insurance against fire and natural disasters. On March 11, 2011 Japan was struck by the 4th largest earthquake in the history of mankind. A natural disaster can occur at any time since these are natural events that occur at random. Some of the natural disasters coverage that companies should seek includes earthquakes, hurricanes, tornados, tsunamis, fire, and floods. The liabilities of a company are an important aspect of the capital structure of a company. Normally liabilities of corporate debt are hard to protect against. A method that can be use to create a certain level of protection for debt is to use a portfolio approach to protect the debt by formulating a strong portfolio of financial instrumen ts that serve as a safe haven in case the company is not able to pay for its debt due bad operating results. The liquid portfolio can be partially liquidated to create cash that the firm can use to pay its current debt and other operating expenses such as payroll. Another important asset that must be protected is inventory. ... Insurance can also be used by corporations to protect against workers claims and lawsuits by internal and external stakeholders. When a lawsuit is filed it is often better to settle out of court to lower legal costs and to reduce the impact of bad publicity to the company. The corporate image of the company is sacred. Back in 1998 Nike Corporation lost half its customers instantly due to the revelation of a sweetshop scandal. The use of an internal control system is extremely beneficial to a company. It can be used in order to increase the efficiency and productivity of the entire staff of employees. One of the benefits of the use of internal controls is that it safeguards the assets of the company. The most valuable asset of a company which must be protected at all times is the cash. Cash is the most liquid asset in existence. In the international arena the currency of most countries is different. Three of the most valued currencies in the world are the U.S. dollar, the Euro, and th e British Pound. The U.S. dollar is used as the reserve currency in the majority of the countries in the world. Internal controls can also be used to minimize the theft of inventory in a company. A way to protect the inventory is by placing hidden cameras across the entire warehouse where the inventory is being kept. In the retail environment cashiers must count the money when the cash register is cash out and the manager must verify the amount. Both employees must sign a document regarding the cash. The cash should then be taken to a safe prior to the money being deposited in the bank account of the company. The use of internal controls can prevent the managers and the accounting staff from colluding

Program capstone IP1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Program capstone IP1 - Essay Example Planning as practice of theory of managements, used by many organizations like Microsoft Corporation, involves selecting missions and objectives and the actions to achieve them. It requires decision-making like choosing future courses of action from among alternatives. The plans range from overall purposes and objectives to the most detailed arrangements to be taken. No real plan exists until a decision a commitment of human and material resources needs to be made. In other words, before a decision is made, all that exists is study of planning, analysis, or a proposal; there is no real plan. Use of organization as the second theory of management, Microsoft Corporation management team and the whole staff usually works together to achieve some goal must have duties to take care of. Generally, these roles have to be defined and structured by someone who wants to make sure that people contribute in a specific way to efforts of group. Organizing, therefore, is that part of management that involves establishing an intentional structure of roles for people to fill in a company. Intentional in that all tasks necessary to accomplish goals are assigned and assigned to people who can perform to their best. Indeed, the purpose of an organizational structure is to help in creating an environment for human performance. However, designing an organizational structure is not an easy managerial task because many problems are encountered in making structures fitting situations, together with both defining the kind of jobs that must be done and finding the people to do them. For Leading as the third theory of management, it means influencing of employees so that they will contribute to organization and group goals is widely used in Microsoft Corporation to mention; it has to do predominantly with the interpersonal feature of management. Most important problems to managers arise from people their desires plus defiance, their behavior as groups and individuals. Hence, effective

Innovation exploitation report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Innovation exploitation report - Essay Example The heat exchangers were mainly designed to extract heat energy from industrial waste but the grey water concept is to apply the same method to the waste water of the households. The company is looking forward to establish three modes of heat exchangers. The company needs to develop the heat exchanger, the connections, the sensors and the control system. Within a time span of three months - from June till the end of August - the company will develop and test heat exchangers and make them efficient enough to become a part of its main operations. The efficient system is crucial for acquiring significant market share. Adding the PVC coating gives additional efficiency plus it prevents contamination of clean water. With the help of a Gantt chart is scheduled for developing and testing the materials is included. The exact design that the company will manufacture will be protected by copyright laws and patents. The overall goal is to achieve efficiency by serving the customers’ need s and help contribute towards sustainable renewable energy systems. Waste heat from exhaust air, wastewater and refrigeration machinery can be used for space heating and hot water. Substantial amount of energy can be saved through this judicious use of heat exchangers (Harvey, 2006). The system has been in use successfully in various countries. For instance Herrera at al. (2003) showed with the use of just four heat exchangers in a complex in Mexico -a hospital, laundry, Sports Center with a swimming pool and a family healthcare unit – could save about 38% of thermal energy. A two-year independent study of heat exchanger systems installed in Britain’s houses observed a savings of 380 kWh and 500 kWh per person annually (AIMC4, 2014). The heat exchanger technology is being provided by LEED in the United States (Moore, 2013). The type of heat exchanger that the company is developing is very

Pro and Cons for Electric Car Essay Example for Free

Pro and Cons for Electric Car Essay Out of the many different kind of cars on the road today, one car stands above the rest. With its zero emissions and sleek design, the General Mortars EV 1 was unstoppable. This car runs entirely without gas or oil of any kind. It runs only on electric power which makes it very eco-friendly. This car was the answer to the smog problem in California and would soon be able to help stop global warming and more of our planets environmental issues. So, why are there none of these cars on the road today? Who made sure that none of these EV 1’s where ever mass produced. Who killed the electric car? This act did not go unnoticed by the public. Consumers were outraged by the recalling of the EV1’s. They wanted to know why someone would get rid of a car that would help out the environment and would make things better for future generations. Someone is to blame for killing the electric car, but whom? Was it the big oil companies and their fear of losing money? Could it be the battery technology in the EV1’s that was faulty? Maybe it was the CARB (California Resources Board) who did not want to support the project. Or was it the consumers themselves who would not accept the idea of a seemingly unreliable car? Chris Pine, the director of the documentary, â€Å"Who Killed the Electric Car? † says that all these factors are to blame. But, there could only be one who could take the name of Car Killer. The car companies are the biggest suspect in killing the electric car. General Motors was the car company that started the EV1 project. They started leasing them publicly in 1997. All 660 that were available for lease, got leased. Then in 2000, tragedy struck as all EV1’s were recalled and the plant was closed down. In 2003 GM officially closed down the entire EV1 project despite the long waiting lists and positive feedback from EV1 drivers. Why would the company that started the project in the first place, decide to shut in down without even 20 years of usage? General Motors said that the reason for pulling the plug of the EV1 was the fact that no consumer was willing to drive a car that you have to charge every hundred miles or so (CBC News). But, since there was a huge demand for the EV1’s in California, I think that is not the only reason. I think the car companies were afraid to lose money from the EV1’s good sales. They wanted to make sure that no other car would sell better than theirs. My opinion that the car companies killed the electric car but, other people see it differently. With a problem this big, maybe many factors are to blame. The consumers themselves need to take some of the blame; many did not like the idea of a car that runs of batteries. In this fast paced world we live in, they though the car would be unreliable. The batteries that run the EV1 are lead acid batteries that would only last 100 miles or so. The consumers wanted a better battery and if there were electric cars all over the world, the oil companies would lose a lot of their profit. Whatever the cause may be, the death of the EV1 will no doubt have a huge impact on the future. Until someone else comes up with a better model of an electric car, the planet will still suffer from global warming. In the future I think we will see more electric cars starting to make it father than the EV1.

Compare and contrast David Landes and Andre Gunder Frank’s explanations of economic development and underdevelopment Essay Example for Free

Compare and contrast David Landes and Andre Gunder Frank’s explanations of economic development and underdevelopment Essay Prompt: Compare and contrast David Landes and Andre Gunder Frank’s explanations of economic development and underdevelopment. How do these authors explain the development of Japan in the 19th century? This paper will analyze the arguments on development and underdevelopment from the point of view of David Landes and Andre Gunder Frank. At the very beginning of Frank’s essay, he clarifies three characteristics of countries, developed, underdeveloped and undeveloped. Meaning of developed country is obvious but Frank states that there are misconceptions about the other two terms. Undeveloped basically refers to countries that is not yet start developing or did not manage to develop whereas underdeveloped means not completely developed but still developing. Some of underdeveloped countries are dealing with the issue of disparities in income and cultural differences among the society. This situation leads to existence of social classes and this is called ‘dual society’. Main reason of this problem is while the capitalists are growing economically, the other part remains isolated thus they are less developed. According to Frank, Japan grew rapidly after the Meiji Restoration. Industrialization period was very successful in Japan even though they do not have adequate resource. Reason of this growth is Japan is not satellized during the Tokugawa and Meiji period. As a result development of Japan was greater than other satellized countries such as Russia and South American countries. On the other hand David Landes suggested some ideas that caused Japanese development. Landes thinks that society plays an important role on development. They were highly motivated to work for their country and they believed that their country would develop such as European countries. Thus they inspired by their success and carried themselves country to the same level.

Theories of Entrepreneurship

Theories of Entrepreneurship Jump to: Sociological Theories of Entrepreneurship Economic Theories of Entrepreneurship Cultural Theories of Entrepreneurship Psychological Theories of Entrepreneurship This essay aims at reviewing the development of the enterprise, entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship literature to date. Comments from various authors point to the fact that this area, both as an area of study and an area of research, is relatively new when compared with other fields of business such as economics and business management. There are however a multitude of theories that have been propounded to explain the developments in the area. These theories, their assumptions and pronouncements will be reviewed and critiqued in this essay. The concepts of enterprise, entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship will be discussed in the first section. The subsequent section shall review major or leading theories in the area and the third section shall look at the development of the event management industry, the relevance of entrepreneurship within the area of event management and the role entrepreneurship has played in the development of the industry. A supplement to this essay shall look at the skills an entrepreneur should possess from the perspective of different authors. A brief self assessment of my own skills will be made and indications of how I plan to develop these skills in the future will be highlighted. Enterprise Thefreedictionary.com defines an enterprise as an undertaking especially one of some scope and risk (www.thefreedictionary.com). Other online dictionaries on google.com use words and phrases like a bold, a difficult, a dangerous, an important, a business venture, a company, requiring courage, energy, dedication to describe what an enterprise actually is. Veblen (2005) in his book, the theory of business enterprise gives a more subtle description of what an enterprise really is (in the business sense). He notes that the motive of business (an enterprise) is pecuniary gain, the method is essentially purchase and sale †¦ the aim and usually the outcome is the accumulation of wealth (p. 16). This contention about the motive, the method, the aim and the outcome of an enterprise qualifies the former definition. The insight drawn from these phrases is that literally all establishments on the high streets today and all the ways in which people try to earn a living is one form of enterprise or another. It could range from big businesses such as public companies through partnerships to family businesses and sole proprietorships. The event management industry for example is composed of several event management enterprises. These are mainly partnerships and private limited companies formed and managed with the goal of turning a profit. Exam ples include OWL Event Management LTD and Innovative Event Management. These comprise organizations where individuals come together to provide a service to individuals and other businesses in return for a profit. Entrepreneurs Congruent with the definition of an enterprise, one can contend that an entrepreneur is that person who runs, manages or owns an enterprise. This statement however does not fully describe who an entrepreneur really is. Arthur and Sheffrin (2003) regard an entrepreneur as a person who possesses a new venture, a new enterprise or a new idea, assumes responsibility for the risks involved in running such a venture or enterprise or pursuing his idea and enjoys the benefits and outcomes from such activity. The recurrent theme in Arthur and Sheffrins view of an entrepreneur is new which in the literature refers to innovation. As the subsequent discussions will indicate, Innovation is a central theme that runs through the entrepreneurship literature and practice. There are other views on this issues which will be expounded on shortly. The act of being an entrepreneur is referred to as entrepreneurship. Both terms are therefore closely related and there is no marked distinction in the literat ure between them. The discussion on entrepreneurs will therefore be culminated with entrepreneurship for simplicity and clarity. Entrepreneurship Baron and Shane (2008) contend that there is no single agreed definition of entrepreneurship either as an activity or a field of study. They acknowledged that the definition of entrepreneurship introduced by Shane and Venkataraman (2000) is one with high popularity. Shane and Venkataraman (2000) define entrepreneurship as a field of business aimed at understanding how opportunities for innovation in terms of new products, services, markets, production process, raw materials, ways of organizing existing technologies, arise and are discovered (or in fact created) by individuals (entrepreneurs), who develop and exploit these opportunities through different ways to produce a wide range of effects (Baron and Shane, 2008). Baron and Shane, (2008) support this definition by emphasizing that entrepreneurship involves identifying an opportunity that is potentially valuable in the sense that it can be exploited in practical business terms and yield sustainable profits†¦ and actually exploiting or developing this opportunity (p. 5). They extend this definition by emphasizing the need to be able to run the resulting business successfully after the opportunity is developed. Early entrepreneurs in the event management industry recognized the need for a service- event management. The history of humankind is marked with celebrations-man is a social being. People always come together, mainly temporary, to achieve certain goals under a time limit. This raised the need for effectiveness in these meetings which today is ensured by the event management industry. The growth in entrepreneurship Baron and Shane (2008) present startling statistics revealing that over a million new businesses were started in the US over a 10 year period with over 10 million people being registered as self employed. The growth in entrepreneurship has been attributed to three main factors. Baron and Shane (2008) argue that three factors have spurred growth in entrepreneurship through the 20th and 21st centuries. These include the media, fundamental changes in employment contracts and change in basic values (p.9). These conform to theories of social change discussed above. The media has put entrepreneurship in a positive light with many entrepreneurs such as Bill Gates, taking up role model positions in the world. In terms of the employment contract, the writers argue that workers are increasingly seeking for independence and freedom. Employers also employ strategies to hire and fire with ease in order to cut costs. This has made entrepreneurship a safety hob for most individuals. Theories on entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship Several theories and a continuum of approaches have been developed over the years to describe entrepreneurs and to explain the development of entrepreneurship. Deakins and Freel (2009) surmises major contributions and view points held in the area. Deakins and Feel (2009) contend that an entrepreneur has been considered as an innovator (Schumpeter), an organizer of factors of production and a catalyst for economic change (Say, Casson and Cantillon), a highly creative individual (Shackle). Ucbasaran et al (2001) reviews the development of entrepreneurship literature and contends that various themes or lines of enquiry can be identified in the building of entrepreneurship theory. These include: entrepreneurs personalities, backgrounds and early experiences; entrepreneurs traits; behavioral aspects of entrepreneurs; cognitive processes in decision making; and heuristics (Ucbasaran et al., 2001). Below, I review some of the early contributions in this area under four different umbrellas; sociological theories, economic theories, cultural theories and psychological theories. This classification is pervasive in the literature (Ucbasaran et al., 2001; Deakins and Freel, 2009, Mohanty, 2005). Sociological theories Several theories have been advanced to explain how social factors affect the growth of entrepreneurs. Two established theories have been recurrently discussed in the literature; the theory of religious beliefs and the theory of social change. These theories explain how sociological factors accelerate the growth of entrepreneurs (Mohanty, 2005). Theory of religious beliefs Max Webber was a famous sociologist and political economist of German origin. His writings in the early 20th century have tremendously influenced sociological, religious and political thinking today. His books have been recompiled and republished. In his book the theory of social and economic organizations edited by Parsons (1964) Webber asserts that entrepreneurship is a function of religious beliefs and the impact of religion shapes the entrepreneurial culture (p. 36). He argues that entrepreneurial energies are exogenous i.e. they are come from external factors, and are fuelled by religious aspects (p.37). Webber argues that the rise of capitalism in Northern Europe was due to the protestant theology which inspired many followers to engage in work, open up enterprises, accumulate wealth and make investments. This he calls the spirit of capitalism (Parsons, 1964). One factor spurring the creation of businesses in his theory is the inducement of profit, where people are motivated by the prospects of making a profit from their enterprise (Parsons, 1964). His theory proposed in a nutshell that, the Spirit of Capitalism arising from the protestant ethic therefore combines with the motive of profit resulting in the creation of many businesses. Needless to say, this theory has received heavy criticism over the years from contemporary researchers mostly based on the assumptions on which the theory was built (Karotayev et al., 2006). Karotayev eta l., 2006 for example noted that the promotion of literacy, education and learning by the protestant movement rather than the protestant ethic in itself resulted in the capitalism through the development of enterprises. Another yet related sociological theory of entrepreneurship was advanced by Everett E Hagen in his Theory of social change. He asserts that economic growth resulted from political and social change (Karotayev et al., 2006). His model shows that an entrepreneurs creativity was the main ingredient and driving force behind social transformation (change) and economic growth (Karotayev et al., 2006). Other social theories include theory of entrepreneurial supply advanced by Thomas Cochran and theory of group level pattern propounded by Frank Young (Mohanty, 2005). Economic theories Schumpeters Theory of innovation In his theory Schumpeter describes innovation as the central feature of economic development and an entrepreneur as the driver of change (Sweezy, 1943, Mohanty, 2005). He defines an entrepreneur as someone who perceives the opportunity to innovate by forming new enterprises (Sweezy, 1943, Mohanty, 2005). He views innovation as a form of creative destruction which is process of industrial mutation that incessantly revolutionizes the economic structure from within, incessantly destroying the old one, incessantly creating a new one (Sweezy, 1943, p. 95). The concept of creative destruction has been widely used in practice to refer to a situation where something new and more advanced replaces and destroys its predecessors. For example, Oil replacing Coal. The concept of innovation has been maintained as the core of entrepreneurship today. Innovation has been extended and expanded to include several aspects such as the introduction of new goods, the improvement of the quality of existing goods, the introduction of a new (cheaper, faster, more efficient) method of production, the discovery or opening of a new market, the discovery of a new source of raw material supply and/or the formation of a new organization (Burns, 2007, 2008, Gray, 1995, Lowe and Marriott, 2006). Schumpeterian theory of entrepreneurship furthered that big companies were mainly behind the drive of entrepreneurship as they had the resources and capital to engage in research and development activities (Sweezy, 1943). Schumpeter later complemented this position by contending that small companies were also drivers on entrepreneurship because their size allowed for flexibility and agility (Sweezy, 1943). The relationship between size, innovation and entrepreneurship has not seemingly been further established in the empirical literature. His position became controversial when he argued that both big and small companies are in the best position to innovate. This implies that size does not moderate innovation capacity. Some researchers criticize the stance of Schumpeter based on his assertion that individual business men as well as directors and company managers were all entrepreneurs. This stance undermines the role of risk, taking, creativity, idea generation, and innovativeness as an integral part of entrepreneurship (Baron and Shane, 2008, Shane and Venkataraman, 2000). Again, Schumpeter uses innovation as the foundation of his theory asserting that innovation was the main driver of entrepreneurship. This point is also subject to criticism as it uses innovation as a sole defining quality of an entrepreneur while undermining the role of risk taking, technical skills and organization abilities as key factors for entrepreneurship (Ward, 2005). Proponents of sociological and cultural theories of entrepreneurship will argue that this theory is limited in its view of the subject as it does not explain why entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial ability varies greatly across countries. Other economic theories of entrepreneurship include Knights theory of profit and Hayeks theory of market equilibrium (Mohanty, 2005). In the theory of profits, Knight views an entrepreneur as someone who takes risks and is exposed to uncertainty (Mohanty, 2005). FH Von Hayek in his theory of market equilibrium showed that market equilibrium is characterized by the absence of entrepreneurs. Though relevant these subsequent theories have not taken the pride of place in the literature. Cultural theories The basic tenet and argument put forward by cultural theorists is that entrepreneurship is a product of culture (Mohanty, 2005). Cultural theories of entrepreneurship explain the differences in entrepreneurial ability and spirit across different cultures. The major attraction of these theories is that they explain why some countries are underdeveloped while others develop and grow so rapidly. Other theorists mentioned above such as Schumpeter and Hagen have no explanation of this occurrence. Hoselitz theory of entrepreneurship supply Mohanty (2005) noted that Hoselitz theory posits that the supply of entrepreneurship is governed by cultural factors and culturally minority groups are the spark plugs of entrepreneurial and economic development (p. 49). This attempts to explain why certain socio-cultural groups have spurred development and small business growth in many countries; Mohanty (2005) quotes the examples of the Jews and the Greeks in Medieval Europe, the Indians in East Africa and the Chinese in South Africa. These culturally minority groups have been at the forefront of enterprise development, entrepreneurship and economic growth in these areas. Hoselitz was one of the earliest theories to contend that managerial skills as well as leadership abilities in addition to the drive to amass wealth were key to entrepreneurship (Mohanty, 2005). His theory is also in line with Max Webbers concepts of the protestant ethic and how it drives capitalism. This is through the realization that particular socio-cultural groups or classes foster economic growth through entrepreneurship. Hoselitz realizes the role of change as a stimulus for innovation in his Hypothesis of the marginal men (Mohanty, 2005). He posits that marginal men are best suited to make creative adjustments in times of economic change and through these adjustments are able to introduce better ways through genuine innovations in social behavior (Mohanty, 2005). The theory seemingly presents a holistic view of entrepreneurship by considering the influence of factors such as change, innovation, culture, social class, managerial as well as leadership skills, personal traits etc. Other cultural theories of entrepreneurship include Stokes theory of entrepreneurship (Mohanty, 2005). Psychological theories Psychological theories look at how the psychology of the society influences the supply of entrepreneurs (Mohanty, 2005). Although this strand of theories is not popular in the literature, it has received significant contributions from Schumpeter, Krunkel and Carland (Mohanty, 2005). Other theories One of the most esteemed management scholars of the last century was Peter Drucker. Incidentally, Drucker has contributed colossally to the development of the entrepreneurship theory and literature. He has written several papers over the years which have led to the advancement of knowledge in this area. Peter Drucker defined an entrepreneur as one who always searches for change, responds to it and exploits it as an opportunity (Deakins and Freel, 2009). His focus is on the attitude of an entrepreneur and how he views the world around him. Drucker notes that two factors lead to entrepreneurship; resource and innovation. He argues that innovation creates resource†¦ and resource is anything with an economic value (Mohanty, 2005; Deakins and Freel, 2009). The main contribution of Drucker is his view that an entrepreneur must not be the owner or creator but he who manages or executes is also an entrepreneur. His works point out aspects that can be considered as entrepreneurship which include; increasing customer satisfaction from a resource, increasing the perceived value of a resource, creating new value from an old product, converting a material into a resource, combining existing resources into a new and more productive configuration (Deakins and Freel, 2009). Drucker extends the view of entrepreneurship to non profit organization while emphasizing that the practice has a knowledge base, with concepts and theories and is not based on intuitions (Mohanty, 2005). Controversially, Drucker argues that entrepreneurship behavior rather than personality traits spurs and enhances entrepreneurship (Mohanty, 2005). Several writers in the area have argued against this point presenting empirical evidence to show that there is a high correlation between certain types of personality traits and entrepreneurship behavior (Ward, 2005). Druckers contributions still remain significant. Entrepreneurship as a process Baron and Shane, (2008) have extensively reviewed the literature on entrepreneurship building on early theories and propositions and have arrived at what they term the entrepreneurship process. This process involves a series of steps that a successful entrepreneur will take. Their model includes steps such as; Recognition of an opportunity, Deciding to proceed and assembling the essential resources, Launching a new venture, Building success and managing growth, Harvesting the rewards (Baron and Shane, 2008). The writers advocate a more holistic view of entrepreneurship from idea recognition through development. In their view, opportunities for innovation are external and they arise from three sources; Technological changes, political and regulatory change, social and demographic change (Baron and Shane, 2008). In conformance with the view of other writers such as Drucker, the researchers recognize various forms of innovation including; a new product or service, a new way of organizin g, a new market for existing products, a new method of production and a new raw material. This view is widely accepted and can be classed as contemporary as it is widely promoted in current entrepreneurship literature. Enterprise, Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship in the Events management industry (1000 words) Events management generally refers to managing event projects i.e. applying project management techniques to the management of events. Ramsbord et al., (2008) noted that event management involves several project management aspects such as brand analysis and consideration, analysis of event audience, creation of an event concept, planning and coordinating the event delivery. The authors also noted that other aspects such as event appraisal and event profitability are growing in significance as part of the event management concept. An event means several things to different people and variations will develop in terms of size of the event, the event audience, the significance of the event, the frequency of the event, the location of the event and the potential revenues to be generated from the event etc. In the context of event management however the word event takes a multitude of meanings. It includes corporate events such press conferences, other business conferences, corporate meetings (such Annual General Meetings), corporate anniversaries and product launches amongst others. It also includes corporate marketing programs such as opening of business sites and road shows. Events in this sense may also refer to corporate hospitality events such as award ceremonies, fashion shows, movie premieres, music concerts, music launches. It can refer to national events such as National days and sporting meets (Olympics, world cup, champions league games and English premier league games). Bowdin et al., 2006 reviewing se veral concepts of events resolved that an event is an organized occasion such as a meeting, convention, exhibition, special event, gala, dinner etc. which is composed of several yet different functions. They assert that it is temporary in nature, it is unique and it stems from management, program, setting and people (p. 14). Aspects involved in event management as noted by Bowdin et al., 2006 include venue surveys, site design, budget drafting, supply chain and logistics management, cash flow management, project scheduling, materials procurement, health and safety, technical aspects (sound, light, video), security and crowd management. As noted above, post-event appraisal and event profitability are increasing growing as a significant part of the event management discipline. This also constitute major concerns for entrepreneurs. The view of classical theorists such Webber and Schumpeter shows that profitability is that main push behind entrepreneurship. The business of event management is relatively new when compared to other businesses such as retail and transport. Recognition for the need for an event management service it self indicates entrepreneurship. Before too long along, event organizers had to manage the event without the need for any professional and experienced organizer. Today many organizations can outsource event management to professional organizations which have the skills, experience and resources to run such events. This has tremendously improved the success of events. Within the events industry several innovations have been made over time. Sign-Up Technologies, a small US firm has recently released its eticketing system which allows event promoters to sell tickets and collect customer information online. This eliminates the need for third party retailers who charge high commissions. It also expands the markets by allowing customers to easily access markets. The introduction of sophisticated video and sound technologies and new practices in stage design allows event managers to expand the capacity of events while ensuring that the customer experience and the quality of the event is not hampered. This helps to improve profitability. The use of new sophisticated surveillance and monitoring equipment has improved the cost incurred by event management companies. An Irish Event Management Company, EventSec LtD uses a mobile monitoring system that allows it to reduce manning at events (cutting costs) but improve security through effective and efficient monitoring. EventSec LTD has also found a new market for its product and has now worn a contract to engage in traffic management OWL Event management LTD current has gained fame in the events management industry through its use of contemporary technology in lighting, sound and video to improve the event experience of its customers. The firm also liaises actively with other firms to provide bespoke catering, security, cleaning and more services. This business model innovates by combining different resources in a configuration that serves a need. This comprehensive event management model improves the customer experience. OWL Event Management LTD also realized that exhibition stands where sometimes an important factor drawing potential customers towards exhibitionist. The design of exhibition stands has for a long time been taken for granted by firms. Most firms use stands that provide sitting space, a table and a shade. OWL Event Management has introduced its new range of stands which it provides to its customers. These stands are attention grabbing through their bespoke designs, their contemporary curves and th eir eye catching lighting. The firm argues that these stands keep visitors glued to exhibitionists thus facilitating the message delivery. The demand for these set up has helped the firm improve its profit position. SECTION B A reflection on my current entrepreneurial skills and  traits, and a discussion on how I plan to develop these in the future Entrepreneurial skills The literature and research in the area highlights several skills, traits, personalities and characteristics which should be possessed by successful entrepreneurs. One of the most holistic view of these has been provided by Ward (2005) in An integrated model for entrepreneurship and entrepreneurship. Ward (2005) asserts that entrepreneurs require a personality, technical skills and behavioral skills in order to be successful. The desired or winning personality traits according to his model include; Risk tolerance, Self confidence, Achievement oriented, Proactive, Innovative, vision, flexibility, high energy, uncertainty tolerance, Desire for autonomy, assertiveness, resilience, tenacity, self awareness, creativity, capacity to inspire and emotional stability. These personality traits help in the generation of winning ideas. These must be matched by technical skills and behavioral skills which will enable the entrepreneur to transfer these ideas to viable businesses through the establishment and management of the enterprise. As indicated by the model, the technical skills involved include; marketing, finance, business planning, strategic planning, human resource management, production management, legal issues, logistics management and quality management (Ward, 2005). The behaviora l skills involves include; communications, judgment, negotiation, creativity, decision making, delegation, customer-supplier relationship, motivation, problem solving and team working (Ward, 2005). The model indicates that all three types of skills are necessary for effective entrepreneurship. The model also shows that several external factors combine with these skills to determine the outcome of an entrepreneur. These external factors include, opportunities in the market place which may arise from uncertainty or changes (Ward, 2005). The model shows that the availability of resources in the external environment coupled with the entrepreneurs control over such resources moderates the outcome. Such resources include the other factors of production such as material, land, building (Ward, 2005). Self assessment; A reflection As an individual, I strongly believe that I am creative and innovative. I have always questioned the way things are done and thought of better ways of doing certain things. I adopt a proactive approach by thinking ahead. I am open-minded, flexible and always happy to embrace change. I am not dismayed by uncertainty but find uncertainty but find change and uncertainty as an opportunity to break the status-quo and enjoy new experiences. I will confidently say I fit Wards (2005) personality profile of an entrepreneur. With respect to technical skills, I have expounded my knowledge in several areas of business through my course learning and additional external reading. Despite my broad knowledge in the field of business, I am still unconfident about taking my ideas to the next level because I feel I lack the experience to by successful. I call this inertia. Most of my ideas only remain in my head. I am sometimes impressed with myself when my friends comment on how good my business ideas are. I however lack technical knowledge in legal issues and my knowledge on human resource management and logistics management needs to be improved. As concerns behavioral skills, I think I am a good communicator. This has helped my in my studies in building relationships with friends and creating alliances at work. I am good with team working and have been successfully involved in minor business negotiations. At certain times, I let my emotions get in the way of my negotiations and do end up regretting some of the decisions I make. I am working on being firm in my decision making and negotiations. I lack sufficient experience on certain areas such as delegation, motivation and problem solving. Plans for future development I plan to hone my entrepreneurial abilities by actually engaging in small scale ventures. I am currently setting up a small venture with a friend. The initial stages have involved drawing a business plan and meeting up with potential suppliers and customers. We have carried out market surveys and have taken a look at factors such as logistics, marketing, distribution and financial reporting. This experience has opened up my horizons and given me an insight of what entrepreneurship is all about. I also get very constructive feedback from my business partners. This helps me to amend and improve certain issues. Concurrent with the assertion of Ward (2005), external factors seem to play a huge role to the success of entrepreneurs. Some of the ideas, we have conceived cannot be implemented due to the lack of resources. Certainly, this current venture will not be my last or my best but it will allow me to develop my skills in the area. Aside from this, I also read books and listen to speeches from motivational writers and famous entrepreneurs. This inspires me to pursue my dreams as an entrepreneur.